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NAME | DESCRIPTION | FILE SYSTEM FEATURES | MOUNT OPTIONS | Mount options for ext2 | Mount options for ext3 | Mount options for ext4 | FILE ATTRIBUTES | KERNEL SUPPORT | SEE ALSO | COLOPHON |
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EXT4(5) File Formats Manual EXT4(5)
ext2 - the second extended file system
ext3 - the third extended file system
ext4 - the fourth extended file system
The second, third, and fourth extended file systems, or ext2,
ext3, and ext4 as they are commonly known, are Linux file systems
that have historically been the default file system for many
Linux distributions. They are general purpose file systems that
have been designed for extensibility and backwards compatibility.
In particular, file systems previously intended for use with the
ext2 and ext3 file systems can be mounted using the ext4 file
system driver, and indeed in many modern Linux distributions, the
ext4 file system driver has been configured to handle mount
requests for ext2 and ext3 file systems.
A file system formatted for ext2, ext3, or ext4 can have some
collection of the following file system feature flags enabled.
Some of these features are not supported by all implementations
of the ext2, ext3, and ext4 file system drivers, depending on
Linux kernel version in use. On other operating systems, such as
the GNU/HURD or FreeBSD, only a very restrictive set of file
system features may be supported in their implementations of
ext2.
64bit
Enables the file system to be larger than 2^32 blocks.
This feature is set automatically, as needed, but it can
be useful to specify this feature explicitly if the file
system might need to be resized larger than 2^32 blocks,
even if it was smaller than that threshold when it was
originally created. Note that some older kernels and
older versions of e2fsprogs will not support file systems
with this ext4 feature enabled.
bigalloc
This ext4 feature enables clustered block allocation, so
that the unit of allocation is a power of two number of
blocks. That is, each bit in the what had traditionally
been known as the block allocation bitmap now indicates
whether a cluster is in use or not, where a cluster is by
default composed of 16 blocks. This feature can decrease
the time spent on doing block allocation and brings
smaller fragmentation, especially for large files. The
size can be specified using the mke2fs -C option.
Warning: The bigalloc feature is still under development,
and may not be fully supported with your kernel or may
have various bugs. Please see the web page
http://ext4.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Bigalloc for
details. May clash with delayed allocation (see
nodelalloc mount option).
This feature requires that the extent feature be enabled.
casefold
This ext4 feature provides file system level character
encoding support for directories with the casefold (+F)
flag enabled. This feature is name-preserving on the
disk, but it allows applications to lookup for a file in
the file system using an encoding equivalent version of
the file name.
dir_index
Use hashed b-trees to speed up name lookups in large
directories. This feature is supported by ext3 and ext4
file systems, and is ignored by ext2 file systems.
dir_nlink
Normally, ext4 allows an inode to have no more than 65,000
hard links. This applies to regular files as well as
directories, which means that there can be no more than
64,998 subdirectories in a directory (because each of the
'.' and '..' entries, as well as the directory entry for
the directory in its parent directory counts as a hard
link). This feature lifts this limit by causing ext4 to
use a link count of 1 to indicate that the number of hard
links to a directory is not known when the link count
might exceed the maximum count limit.
ea_inode
Normally, a file's extended attributes and associated
metadata must fit within the inode or the inode's
associated extended attribute block. This feature allows
the value of each extended attribute to be placed in the
data blocks of a separate inode if necessary, increasing
the limit on the size and number of extended attributes
per file.
encrypt
Enables support for file-system level encryption of data
blocks and file names. The inode metadata (timestamps,
file size, user/group ownership, etc.) is not encrypted.
This feature is most useful on file systems with multiple
users, or where not all files should be encrypted. In
many use cases, especially on single-user systems,
encryption at the block device layer using dm-crypt may
provide much better security.
ext_attr
This feature enables the use of extended attributes. This
feature is supported by ext2, ext3, and ext4.
extent
This ext4 feature allows the mapping of logical block
numbers for a particular inode to physical blocks on the
storage device to be stored using an extent tree, which is
a more efficient data structure than the traditional
indirect block scheme used by the ext2 and ext3 file
systems. The use of the extent tree decreases metadata
block overhead, improves file system performance, and
decreases the needed to run e2fsck(8) on the file system.
(Note: both extent and extents are accepted as valid names
for this feature for historical/backwards compatibility
reasons.)
extra_isize
This ext4 feature reserves a specific amount of space in
each inode for extended metadata such as nanosecond
timestamps and file creation time, even if the current
kernel does not currently need to reserve this much space.
Without this feature, the kernel will reserve the amount
of space for features it currently needs, and the rest may
be consumed by extended attributes.
For this feature to be useful the inode size must be 256
bytes in size or larger.
filetype
This feature enables the storage of file type information
in directory entries. This feature is supported by ext2,
ext3, and ext4.
flex_bg
This ext4 feature allows the per-block group metadata
(allocation bitmaps and inode tables) to be placed
anywhere on the storage media. In addition, mke2fs will
place the per-block group metadata together starting at
the first block group of each "flex_bg group". The size
of the flex_bg group can be specified using the -G option.
has_journal
Create a journal to ensure file system consistency even
across unclean shutdowns. Setting the file system feature
is equivalent to using the -j option with mke2fs or
tune2fs. This feature is supported by ext3 and ext4, and
ignored by the ext2 file system driver.
huge_file
This ext4 feature allows files to be larger than 2
terabytes in size.
inline_data
Allow data to be stored in the inode and extended
attribute area.
journal_dev
This feature is enabled on the superblock found on an
external journal device. The block size for the external
journal must be the same as the file system which uses it.
The external journal device can be used by a file system
by specifying the -J device=<external-device> option to
mke2fs(8) or tune2fs(8).
large_dir
This feature increases the limit on the number of files
per directory by raising the maximum size of directories
and, for hashed b-tree directories (see dir_index), the
maximum height of the hashed b-tree used to store the
directory entries.
large_file
This feature flag is set automatically by modern kernels
when a file larger than 2 gigabytes is created. Very old
kernels could not handle large files, so this feature flag
was used to prohibit those kernels from mounting file
systems that they could not understand.
metadata_csum
This ext4 feature enables metadata checksumming. This
feature stores checksums for all of the file system
metadata (superblock, group descriptor blocks, inode and
block bitmaps, directories, and extent tree blocks). The
checksum algorithm used for the metadata blocks is
different than the one used for group descriptors with the
uninit_bg feature. These two features are incompatible
and metadata_csum will be used preferentially instead of
uninit_bg.
metadata_csum_seed
This feature allows the file system to store the metadata
checksum seed in the superblock, which allows the
administrator to change the UUID of a file system using
the metadata_csum feature while it is mounted.
meta_bg
This ext4 feature allows file systems to be resized on-
line without explicitly needing to reserve space for
growth in the size of the block group descriptors. This
scheme is also used to resize file systems which are
larger than 2^32 blocks. It is not recommended that this
feature be set when a file system is created, since this
alternate method of storing the block group descriptors
will slow down the time needed to mount the file system,
and newer kernels can automatically set this feature as
necessary when doing an online resize and no more reserved
space is available in the resize inode.
mmp
This ext4 feature provides multiple mount protection
(MMP). MMP helps to protect the file system from being
multiply mounted and is useful in shared storage
environments.
project
This ext4 feature provides project quota support. With
this feature, the project ID of inode will be managed when
the file system is mounted.
quota
Create quota inodes (inode #3 for userquota and inode #4
for group quota) and set them in the superblock. With
this feature, the quotas will be enabled automatically
when the file system is mounted.
Causes the quota files (i.e., user.quota and group.quota
which existed in the older quota design) to be hidden
inodes.
resize_inode
This file system feature indicates that space has been
reserved so that the block group descriptor table can be
extended while resizing a mounted file system. The online
resize operation is carried out by the kernel, triggered
by resize2fs(8). By default mke2fs will attempt to
reserve enough space so that the file system may grow to
1024 times its initial size. This can be changed using
the resize extended option.
This feature requires that the sparse_super or
sparse_super2 feature be enabled.
sparse_super
This file system feature is set on all modern ext2, ext3,
and ext4 file systems. It indicates that backup copies of
the superblock and block group descriptors are present
only in a few block groups, not all of them.
sparse_super2
This feature indicates that there will only be at most two
backup superblocks and block group descriptors. The block
groups used to store the backup superblock(s) and
blockgroup descriptor(s) are stored in the superblock, but
typically, one will be located at the beginning of block
group #1, and one in the last block group in the file
system. This feature is essentially a more extreme
version of sparse_super and is designed to allow a much
larger percentage of the disk to have contiguous blocks
available for data files.
stable_inodes
Marks the file system's inode numbers and UUID as stable.
resize2fs(8) will not allow shrinking a file system with
this feature, nor will tune2fs(8) allow changing its UUID.
This feature allows the use of specialized encryption
settings that make use of the inode numbers and UUID.
Note that the encrypt feature still needs to be enabled
separately. stable_inodes is a "compat" feature, so old
kernels will allow it.
uninit_bg
This ext4 file system feature indicates that the block
group descriptors will be protected using checksums,
making it safe for mke2fs(8) to create a file system
without initializing all of the block groups. The kernel
will keep a high watermark of unused inodes, and
initialize inode tables and blocks lazily. This feature
speeds up the time to check the file system using
e2fsck(8), and it also speeds up the time required for
mke2fs(8) to create the file system.
verity
Enables support for verity protected files. Verity files
are readonly, and their data is transparently verified
against a Merkle tree hidden past the end of the file.
Using the Merkle tree's root hash, a verity file can be
efficiently authenticated, independent of the file's size.
This feature is most useful for authenticating important
read-only files on read-write file systems. If the file
system itself is read-only, then using dm-verity to
authenticate the entire block device may provide much
better security.
This section describes mount options which are specific to ext2,
ext3, and ext4. Other generic mount options may be used as well;
see mount(8) for details.
The `ext2' file system is the standard Linux file system. Since
Linux 2.5.46, for most mount options the default is determined by
the file system superblock. Set them with tune2fs(8).
acl|noacl
Support POSIX Access Control Lists (or not). See the
acl(5) manual page.
bsddf|minixdf
Set the behavior for the statfs system call. The minixdf
behavior is to return in the f_blocks field the total
number of blocks of the file system, while the bsddf
behavior (which is the default) is to subtract the
overhead blocks used by the ext2 file system and not
available for file storage. Thus
% mount /k -o minixdf; df /k; umount /k
File System 1024-blocks Used Available Capacity Mounted on
/dev/sda6 2630655 86954 2412169 3% /k
% mount /k -o bsddf; df /k; umount /k
File System 1024-blocks Used Available Capacity Mounted on
/dev/sda6 2543714 13 2412169 0% /k
(Note that this example shows that one can add command
line options to the options given in /etc/fstab.)
check=none or nocheck
No checking is done at mount time. This is the default.
This is fast. It is wise to invoke e2fsck(8) every now
and then, e.g. at boot time. The non-default behavior is
unsupported (check=normal and check=strict options have
been removed). Note that these mount options don't have to
be supported if ext4 kernel driver is used for ext2 and
ext3 file systems.
debug Print debugging info upon each (re)mount.
errors={continue|remount-ro|panic}
Define the behavior when an error is encountered. (Either
ignore errors and just mark the file system erroneous and
continue, or remount the file system read-only, or panic
and halt the system.) The default is set in the file
system superblock, and can be changed using tune2fs(8).
grpid|bsdgroups and nogrpid|sysvgroups
These options define what group id a newly created file
gets. When grpid is set, it takes the group id of the
directory in which it is created; otherwise (the default)
it takes the fsgid of the current process, unless the
directory has the setgid bit set, in which case it takes
the gid from the parent directory, and also gets the
setgid bit set if it is a directory itself.
grpquota|noquota|quota|usrquota
The usrquota (same as quota) mount option enables user
quota support on the file system. grpquota enables group
quotas support. You need the quota utilities to actually
enable and manage the quota system.
nouid32
Disables 32-bit UIDs and GIDs. This is for
interoperability with older kernels which only store and
expect 16-bit values.
oldalloc or orlov
Use old allocator or Orlov allocator for new inodes. Orlov
is default.
resgid=n and resuid=n
The ext2 file system reserves a certain percentage of the
available space (by default 5%, see mke2fs(8) and
tune2fs(8)). These options determine who can use the
reserved blocks. (Roughly: whoever has the specified uid,
or belongs to the specified group.)
sb=n Instead of using the normal superblock, use an alternative
superblock specified by n. This option is normally used
when the primary superblock has been corrupted. The
location of backup superblocks is dependent on the file
system's blocksize, the number of blocks per group, and
features such as sparse_super.
Additional backup superblocks can be determined by using
the mke2fs program using the -n option to print out where
the superblocks exist, supposing mke2fs is supplied with
arguments that are consistent with the file system's
layout (e.g. blocksize, blocks per group, sparse_super,
etc.).
The block number here uses 1 k units. Thus, if you want to
use logical block 32768 on a file system with 4 k blocks,
use "sb=131072".
user_xattr|nouser_xattr
Support "user." extended attributes (or not).
The ext3 file system is a version of the ext2 file system which
has been enhanced with journaling. It supports the same options
as ext2 as well as the following additions:
journal_dev=devnum/journal_path=path
When the external journal device's major/minor numbers
have changed, these options allow the user to specify the
new journal location. The journal device is identified
either through its new major/minor numbers encoded in
devnum, or via a path to the device.
norecovery/noload
Don't load the journal on mounting. Note that if the file
system was not unmounted cleanly, skipping the journal
replay will lead to the file system containing
inconsistencies that can lead to any number of problems.
data={journal|ordered|writeback}
Specifies the journaling mode for file data. Metadata is
always journaled. To use modes other than ordered on the
root file system, pass the mode to the kernel as boot
parameter, e.g. rootflags=data=journal.
journal
All data is committed into the journal prior to
being written into the main file system.
ordered
This is the default mode. All data is forced
directly out to the main file system prior to its
metadata being committed to the journal.
writeback
Data ordering is not preserved – data may be
written into the main file system after its
metadata has been committed to the journal. This
is rumoured to be the highest-throughput option.
It guarantees internal file system integrity,
however it can allow old data to appear in files
after a crash and journal recovery.
data_err=ignore
Just print an error message if an error occurs in a file
data buffer in ordered mode.
data_err=abort
Abort the journal if an error occurs in a file data buffer
in ordered mode.
barrier=0 / barrier=1
This disables / enables the use of write barriers in the
jbd code. barrier=0 disables, barrier=1 enables
(default). This also requires an IO stack which can
support barriers, and if jbd gets an error on a barrier
write, it will disable barriers again with a warning.
Write barriers enforce proper on-disk ordering of journal
commits, making volatile disk write caches safe to use, at
some performance penalty. If your disks are battery-
backed in one way or another, disabling barriers may
safely improve performance.
commit=nrsec
Start a journal commit every nrsec seconds. The default
value is 5 seconds. Zero means default.
user_xattr
Enable Extended User Attributes. See the attr(5) manual
page.
jqfmt={vfsold|vfsv0|vfsv1}
Apart from the old quota system (as in ext2, jqfmt=vfsold
aka version 1 quota) ext3 also supports journaled quotas
(version 2 quota). jqfmt=vfsv0 or jqfmt=vfsv1 enables
journaled quotas. Journaled quotas have the advantage that
even after a crash no quota check is required. When the
quota file system feature is enabled, journaled quotas are
used automatically, and this mount option is ignored.
usrjquota=aquota.user|grpjquota=aquota.group
For journaled quotas (jqfmt=vfsv0 or jqfmt=vfsv1), the
mount options usrjquota=aquota.user and
grpjquota=aquota.group are required to tell the quota
system which quota database files to use. When the quota
file system feature is enabled, journaled quotas are used
automatically, and this mount option is ignored.
The ext4 file system is an advanced level of the ext3 file system
which incorporates scalability and reliability enhancements for
supporting large file system.
The options journal_dev, journal_path, norecovery, noload, data,
commit, orlov, oldalloc, [no]user_xattr, [no]acl, bsddf, minixdf,
debug, errors, data_err, grpid, bsdgroups, nogrpid, sysvgroups,
resgid, resuid, sb, quota, noquota, nouid32, grpquota, usrquota,
usrjquota, grpjquota, and jqfmt are backwardly compatible with
ext3 or ext2.
journal_checksum | nojournal_checksum
The journal_checksum option enables checksumming of the
journal transactions. This will allow the recovery code
in e2fsck and the kernel to detect corruption in the
kernel. It is a compatible change and will be ignored by
older kernels.
journal_async_commit
Commit block can be written to disk without waiting for
descriptor blocks. If enabled older kernels cannot mount
the device. This will enable 'journal_checksum'
internally.
barrier=0 / barrier=1 / barrier / nobarrier
These mount options have the same effect as in ext3. The
mount options "barrier" and "nobarrier" are added for
consistency with other ext4 mount options.
The ext4 file system enables write barriers by default.
inode_readahead_blks=n
This tuning parameter controls the maximum number of inode
table blocks that ext4's inode table readahead algorithm
will pre-read into the buffer cache. The value must be a
power of 2. The default value is 32 blocks.
stripe=n
Number of file system blocks that mballoc will try to use
for allocation size and alignment. For RAID5/6 systems
this should be the number of data disks * RAID chunk size
in file system blocks.
delalloc
Deferring block allocation until write-out time.
nodelalloc
Disable delayed allocation. Blocks are allocated when data
is copied from user to page cache.
max_batch_time=usec
Maximum amount of time ext4 should wait for additional
file system operations to be batch together with a
synchronous write operation. Since a synchronous write
operation is going to force a commit and then a wait for
the I/O complete, it doesn't cost much, and can be a huge
throughput win, we wait for a small amount of time to see
if any other transactions can piggyback on the synchronous
write. The algorithm used is designed to automatically
tune for the speed of the disk, by measuring the amount of
time (on average) that it takes to finish committing a
transaction. Call this time the "commit time". If the
time that the transaction has been running is less than
the commit time, ext4 will try sleeping for the commit
time to see if other operations will join the transaction.
The commit time is capped by the max_batch_time, which
defaults to 15000 µs (15 ms). This optimization can be
turned off entirely by setting max_batch_time to 0.
min_batch_time=usec
This parameter sets the commit time (as described above)
to be at least min_batch_time. It defaults to zero
microseconds. Increasing this parameter may improve the
throughput of multi-threaded, synchronous workloads on
very fast disks, at the cost of increasing latency.
journal_ioprio=prio
The I/O priority (from 0 to 7, where 0 is the highest
priority) which should be used for I/O operations
submitted by kjournald2 during a commit operation. This
defaults to 3, which is a slightly higher priority than
the default I/O priority.
abort Simulate the effects of calling ext4_abort() for debugging
purposes. This is normally used while remounting a file
system which is already mounted.
auto_da_alloc|noauto_da_alloc
Many broken applications don't use fsync() when replacing
existing files via patterns such as
fd = open("foo.new")/write(fd,...)/close(fd)/
rename("foo.new", "foo")
or worse yet
fd = open("foo", O_TRUNC)/write(fd,...)/close(fd).
If auto_da_alloc is enabled, ext4 will detect the replace-
via-rename and replace-via-truncate patterns and force
that any delayed allocation blocks are allocated such that
at the next journal commit, in the default data=ordered
mode, the data blocks of the new file are forced to disk
before the rename() operation is committed. This provides
roughly the same level of guarantees as ext3, and avoids
the "zero-length" problem that can happen when a system
crashes before the delayed allocation blocks are forced to
disk.
noinit_itable
Do not initialize any uninitialized inode table blocks in
the background. This feature may be used by installation
CD's so that the install process can complete as quickly
as possible; the inode table initialization process would
then be deferred until the next time the file system is
mounted.
init_itable=n
The lazy itable init code will wait n times the number of
milliseconds it took to zero out the previous block
group's inode table. This minimizes the impact on system
performance while the file system's inode table is being
initialized.
discard/nodiscard
Controls whether ext4 should issue discard/TRIM commands
to the underlying block device when blocks are freed.
This is useful for SSD devices and sparse/thinly-
provisioned LUNs, but it is off by default until
sufficient testing has been done.
block_validity/noblock_validity
This option enables/disables the in-kernel facility for
tracking file system metadata blocks within internal data
structures. This allows multi-block allocator and other
routines to quickly locate extents which might overlap
with file system metadata blocks. This option is intended
for debugging purposes and since it negatively affects the
performance, it is off by default.
dioread_lock/dioread_nolock
Controls whether or not ext4 should use the DIO read
locking. If the dioread_nolock option is specified ext4
will allocate uninitialized extent before buffer write and
convert the extent to initialized after IO completes.
This approach allows ext4 code to avoid using inode mutex,
which improves scalability on high speed storages. However
this does not work with data journaling and dioread_nolock
option will be ignored with kernel warning. Note that
dioread_nolock code path is only used for extent-based
files. Because of the restrictions this options comprises
it is off by default (e.g. dioread_lock).
max_dir_size_kb=n
This limits the size of the directories so that any
attempt to expand them beyond the specified limit in
kilobytes will cause an ENOSPC error. This is useful in
memory-constrained environments, where a very large
directory can cause severe performance problems or even
provoke the Out Of Memory killer. (For example, if there
is only 512 MB memory available, a 176 MB directory may
seriously cramp the system's style.)
i_version
Enable 64-bit inode version support. This option is off by
default.
nombcache
This option disables use of mbcache for extended attribute
deduplication. On systems where extended attributes are
rarely or never shared between files, use of mbcache for
deduplication adds unnecessary computational overhead.
prjquota
The prjquota mount option enables project quota support on
the file system. You need the quota utilities to actually
enable and manage the quota system. This mount option
requires the project file system feature.
The ext2, ext3, and ext4 file systems support setting the
following file attributes on Linux systems using the chattr(1)
utility:
a - append only
A - no atime updates
d - no dump
D - synchronous directory updates
i - immutable
S - synchronous updates
u - undeletable
In addition, the ext3 and ext4 file systems support the following
flag:
j - data journaling
Finally, the ext4 file system also supports the following flag:
e - extents format
For descriptions of these attribute flags, please refer to the
chattr(1) man page.
This section lists the file system driver (e.g., ext2, ext3,
ext4) and upstream kernel version where a particular file system
feature was supported. Note that in some cases the feature was
present in earlier kernel versions, but there were known, serious
bugs. In other cases the feature may still be considered in an
experimental state. Finally, note that some distributions may
have backported features into older kernels; in particular the
kernel versions in certain "enterprise distributions" can be
extremely misleading.
filetype ext2, 2.2.0
sparse_super ext2, 2.2.0
large_file ext2, 2.2.0
has_journal ext3, 2.4.15
ext_attr ext2/ext3, 2.6.0
dir_index ext3, 2.6.0
resize_inode ext3, 2.6.10 (online resizing)
64bit ext4, 2.6.28
dir_nlink ext4, 2.6.28
extent ext4, 2.6.28
extra_isize ext4, 2.6.28
flex_bg ext4, 2.6.28
huge_file ext4, 2.6.28
meta_bg ext4, 2.6.28
uninit_bg ext4, 2.6.28
mmp ext4, 3.0
bigalloc ext4, 3.2
quota ext4, 3.6
inline_data ext4, 3.8
sparse_super2 ext4, 3.16
metadata_csum ext4, 3.18
encrypt ext4, 4.1
metadata_csum_seed ext4, 4.4
project ext4, 4.5
ea_inode ext4, 4.13
large_dir ext4, 4.13
casefold ext4, 5.2
verity ext4, 5.4
stable_inodes ext4, 5.5
mke2fs(8), mke2fs.conf(5), e2fsck(8), dumpe2fs(8), tune2fs(8),
debugfs(8), mount(8), chattr(1)
This page is part of the e2fsprogs (utilities for ext2/3/4
filesystems) project. Information about the project can be found
at ⟨http://e2fsprogs.sourceforge.net/⟩. It is not known how to
report bugs for this man page; if you know, please send a mail to
man-pages@man7.org. This page was obtained from the project's
upstream Git repository
⟨git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/fs/ext2/e2fsprogs.git⟩ on
2024-06-14. (At that time, the date of the most recent commit
that was found in the repository was 2024-05-20.) If you
discover any rendering problems in this HTML version of the page,
or you believe there is a better or more up-to-date source for
the page, or you have corrections or improvements to the
information in this COLOPHON (which is not part of the original
manual page), send a mail to man-pages@man7.org
E2fsprogs version 1.47.1 May 2024 EXT4(5)
Pages that refer to this page: chattr(1), fuse2fs(1), FS_IOC_SETFLAGS(2const), link(2), mount_setattr(2), filesystems(5), debugfs(8), dmstats(8), dumpe2fs(8), mke2fs(8), mount(8), systemd-makefs@.service(8), tune2fs(8)
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HTML rendering created 2024-06-26 by Michael Kerrisk, author of The Linux Programming Interface. For details of in-depth Linux/UNIX system programming training courses that I teach, look here. Hosting by jambit GmbH. |
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